nalanda mahavihara was founded by which dynasty?

Surrounded by fertile farmland and relatively near to more densely populated city centers, conditions were favorable for Nalandas growth. The inspiration behind the establishment of this institute was to develop a center of Higher Studies in Pali and Buddhism along the lines of ancient Nalanda Mahavihara. WebThe Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar comprises the ruins of a Buddhist monastic and educational center. Nalanda Mahavihara The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. The very architecture of the mahavihara consisted of 14 temples and 13 monasteries all facing one another, so that there need be no delay between waking and worship, study and worship, eating and worship, sleeping and worship. A coin of the monarch was found at the site. The Sphinx of Balochistan: Is it a Man-made, Rock-cut, Architectural Marvel? This page was last edited on 16 November 2022, at 19:38. A room with corbelled entrance and vaulted roof. Mahavihara There are rows of identical rooms on the second floor. Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire era, and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. Odantpuri was situated at a mountain called Hiranya Prabhat Parvat and the bank of the river Panchanan. WebNalanda Mahavihara was founded in the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE. Nalanda was established as a Mahavihara i.e. The impressive stupa of Sariputta, one of the two chief disciples of the Buddha. Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire era, and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. It was one of the greatest centres of learning in the world. [16][17] It was sacked and destroyed by the troops of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, partly restored thereafter, and continued to exist till about 1400 CE. I agree with all of the comparisons you have made. The library is equipped with modern high-end technologies and infrastructures. He was also called shakraditya. Nalanda coordinated the curriculum for all four main mahaviharas: Nalanda, Vikramasila, Odantapuri and Valabhi, for nearly one thousand years, becoming renowned and drawing students from places as far as China and Persia. Wisdom Publications. Ancient University [4] The five monasteries formed a network; "all of them were under state supervision" and their existed "a system of co-ordination among them it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. He was warmly welcomed in Nalanda where he received the Indian name of Mokshadeva and studied under the guidance of Shilabhadra, the venerable head of the institution at the time. The establishment of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (Deemed University, Under Ministry of Culture, Government of India) was to develop a centre of Higher Studies in Pali and Buddhism along the lines of ancient Nalanda The biography of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti is authored by. whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumargupta I or Kumar Gupta II and 1197 A.D, supported by patronage from the Hindugupta rulers as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the pala empire. 1077-1120). Visit Timing: Daily, 9 am to 5 pm This quick article will be a quick complete guide about the yield curve. WebIt was established by King Gopala of the Pala dynasty in the 7th century. However, the cultural life of the university shifted according to the interaction of Buddhism with Brahmanism, the two most prominent spiritual perspectives of ancient India. It is considered the second oldest of India's universities and was situated in Magadh. There are approximately 1050 branches throughout India. Nalanda Mahavihara Nalanda Mahavihara Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara It was the premier vihara of its kind and its fame lingered till the 11th century CE. Singlila National park located in which of the State? Independent researcher and writer on ancient mysteries, cultural connections, cosmic wisdom, religion and science. The remains of a temple. Image Credit: https://mjosedotorg.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/img_2182.jpg, Nalanda, an architectural chef d'oeuvre that was spread over a large area during the ancient period, is today in dilapidated condition with its excavated ruins measuring an area of around 12 hectares. The monastery had 107 temples and 50 other institutions providing room for 108 monks. Graduate of IIT and IIM with two decades of work experience in different fields. I find astonishing similarity between Sekhmet of Egyptian mythology and Durga too. [7], akyarbhadra, a Kashmiri scholar who was the last abbot of Nalanda Mahavihara and instrumental in transmitting Buddhism to Tibet, is said to have fled to Tibet in 1204 from Jagaddala when Muslim incursions seemed imminent. A tower with stucco figures of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. Which of the following ports is known as Diamond Harbour? a large university-cum-monastic institution, in the 5th century AD by Kumaragupta of the Gupta dynasty, in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern day Bihar). Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India As Brahmanical influence grew over time, the simple Buddhist rituals evolved into more complex ceremonies including image worship, enormous offerings, tantra-mantra, etc. (2)(p.101). Students and scholars from places like China, Central Asia, Korea and Tibet studied in this great vihara that taught Mahayana, Hinayana, Sanskrit grammar, Vedas and Samkhya among others. The Chinese observers from whom we have most of our subjective knowledge of Nalanda report that there were specific ceremonies for receiving visitors such as teachers, pupils, disciples, strangers [and] friends. Vikramashila This is based on the discovery of a coin with his seal on it that was found at the complex. It remained a learning center from the 7th century BCE through c. 1200 CE and is many a time categorized as one of the early universities of India along with other institutions like Vikramashila and Taxila. WebJaggadala was founded toward the end of the Pla dynasty, a Kashmiri scholar who was the last abbot of Nalanda Mahavihara and instrumental in transmitting Buddhism to Tibet, is said to have fled to Tibet in 1204 from Jagaddala when Muslim incursions seemed imminent. According to the Tibetan records there were about 12,000 students at Odantapuri. In his 14 years tenure in India he spent 10 years in Nalanda and furthered his studies in Buddhism. Famous characters from Buddhist history like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga, were reported to have studied there. WebThe ancient Mahavihara at Nalanda was established during the reign of a king called akrditya, of the Gupta Dynasty. WebHistory A number of monasteries grew up during the Pla period in ancient Bengal and Magadha. Nalanda University was constructed during the rule of Kumar Gupta of the Gupta dynasty. With the rise of Tantric practices in Buddhism during the Pala rule that included secret magic and rituals following the gradual decline of the Pala dynasty post 11th century complimented with a surge of Hindu philosophies across the subcontinent saw an eventual decline of Buddhism in India leading to decline of Nalanda. WebNalanda Mahavihara was founded in the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE. 57.88 ha. WebWho built it: Originally by Emperor Kumaragupta I of Gupta Dynasty; Expansion works continued during and after Gupta period Where is it located: Nalanda district, Bihar, India. The exact site of this vihara is at Antichak, a small village in Bhagalpur district (Bihar). 'Mridhara-Vacha' mentioned in Rig-Veda refers to. [8], In 1999 Jagaddala was submitted as tentative site for inclusion on the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites. It remained a learning center from the 7th century BCE through c. 1200 CE and is many a time categorized as one of the early universities of India. Yoga Mudras in Orthodox Christian Art: Does it indicate a Hindu-Buddhist Influence? The famous Nalanda Mahavihara was founded a few centuries earlier; Xuanzang speaks about its magnificence and grandeur. Early Buddhist texts state that Buddha visited a town near Rajagriha called Nalanda on his peregrinations. [4] [1] It became a Deemed university in 2006. [20], Early history of the city of Nalanda (1200 BCE300 CE), Korean and Tibetan pilgrims (6501400 CE), Destruction under Bakhtiyar Khalji (c. 1200 CE), Impact of its destruction and influence on Tibetan Buddhist Tradition, Under the East India Company and British Empire (18001947), Historical figures associated with Nalanda. The available data suggests that the Pala ruler Dharmapala founded the vihara. It followed the traditional cruciform plan for the central shrine. Note: This article has been published in the New Dawn Magazine, Issue 169 . WebNalanda Mahavihara was founded in the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE. From the beginning, the Institute functioned as a residential institution, with a limited number of Indian and foreign students. Mahavihara WebSolution The correct option is A 1 only "Nalanda Mahavihara was founded by Kumargupta I of the Gupta dynasty in 5th century CE. Scholars and students from far off places including China, Japan, Turkey, Persia, Korea, Tibet and Indonesia attended the Mahavihara. Nalanda was established as a Mahavihara i.e. It was the most prosperous and famous university of the ancient world. It was an ancient Mahavihara, a Buddhist monastery. His son Sirimeghavanna restores the Mahavihara to its former glory. Recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, Nalanda not only boasts of being one of the most revered Buddhist tourism sites in India but also continues to draw attention from scholars, historians, and archaeologists. The library has access to over 170 e-books, and 4800 e-journals from different online databases such as Taylor and Francis, Oxford University Press, Sage Publications, and Cambridge University Press. It was probably used for storing grains. Odantpuri was situated at a mountain called Hiranya Prabhat Parvat and the bank of the river Panchanan. The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. [18], In 2010, the Government of India passed a resolution to revive the famous university, and a contemporary institute, Nalanda University, was established at Rajgir. Ancient University of Nalanda Mahavihara During the Pla period, Nlnda was less singularly outstanding, as other Pl establishments "must have drawn away a number of learned monks from Nlnda when all of the . That Nalanda continued to be an important seat of learning from the 4tsh century to the 9th century AD cannot be doubted. Indus Valley cultural elements in Minoan Crete: Was it due to Migration? In this article, we will try to understand the concept of a yield curve and its type. The establishment of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (Deemed University, Under Ministry of Culture, Government of India) was to develop a centre of Higher Studies in Pali and Buddhism along the lines of ancient Nalanda Nalanda Mahavihara The discussion shows that the growth of Nalanda Mahavihara marked the beginning of institutional learning in the ancient Indian education system. Revenues of hundred villages as also daily supply of rice, milk and butter were furnished to the monks of the institution under the instruction of the emperor. . Suggest Corrections 0 Similar questions It was established in 1951 under Rajendra Prasad to revive the ancient seat of learning in Nalanda . WebJaggadala was founded toward the end of the Pla dynasty, a Kashmiri scholar who was the last abbot of Nalanda Mahavihara and instrumental in transmitting Buddhism to Tibet, is said to have fled to Tibet in 1204 from Jagaddala when Muslim incursions seemed imminent. RRB Group D Application Refund Notice has been released. WebNalanda, ancient university and Buddhist monastic centre southwest of Bihar Sharif in central Bihar state, northeastern India. Nalanda Mahavihara Nalanda Mahavihara is an archeological site of an ancient Buddhist monastery, which was built around the fifth century C.E. whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumargupta I or Kumar Gupta II and 1197 A.D, supported by patronage from the Hindugupta rulers as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the pala empire. Each room had two beds, with shelves for keeping books etc. [1] The five monasteries formed a network; "all of them were under state supervision" and there existed "a system of co-ordination among them . The name Nalanda conjures up a picture of ancient Mahavihara, which was a great seat of Buddhist education in the ancient kingdom of Magadha in India. Nalanda was declared as an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016. a large university-cum-monastic institution, in the 5th century AD by Kumaragupta of the Gupta dynasty, in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern day Bihar). There were central blocks in the middle of the eastern, southern and western sides. They set up four more Mahaviharas at Odantapura, Jagaddala, Vikramashila and Somapura all of which typified the Nalanda Mahavihara. Mahavihara (Mahvihra) is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a great vihara (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas. Which of these belong to astika school of thought? The historical development of the site testifies to the development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and educational traditions. Odantapuri, also called Odantapura or Uddandapura, was a Buddhist vihara in what is now Bihar, India. . It is believed that the Gupta monarch Shakraditya, or Kumaragupta (415-455CE) founded Nalanda. He took 400 Sanskrit texts with him on his return to China in 695 CE and eventually translated them in Chinese language. Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or upajjhaya. This is based on the discovery of a coin with his seal on it that was found at the complex. WebNalanda University was constructed during the rule of Kumar Gupta of the Gupta dynasty. Around 11 travellers from China and Korea visited Nalanda over the next three decades after his return to China. It is believed that the Gupta monarch Shakraditya, or Kumaragupta (415-455CE) founded Nalanda. Reference to a monastery known as Vikramashila is found in Tibetan records. The accounted history of Nalanda dates back to the Gupta Empire with a seal confirming the founder of the place as the 5th-century CE Gupta monarch Shakraditya (?akr?ditya) who was identified as emperor Kumaragupta I (r.c.415 c.455 CE). Jagaddala Mahavihara whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumargupta I or Kumar Gupta II and 1197 A.D, supported by patronage from the Hindugupta rulers as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the pala empire. WebBuffer zone. The stupa is surrounded by many votive stupas and shrines. Petra, Jordan - Is it an ancient Shiva Temple complex? Recently it is known as the Bihar Sharif (Headquarters of Nalanda District). Outside of the Mahavihara, Nalandas education covered both leading a successful and peaceful life in the society and at times getting jobs in the royal administration. The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. WebNalanda was an ancient Mahavihara, a revered Buddhist monastery that also served as a renowned centre of learning, in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. He was against rituals and animal sacrifices. The legend of Sekhmet, however, is similar to the story of Goddess Kali, who went on a killing spree, and had to be ultimately pacified by Lord Shiva. It remained a learning centre from 7th century BCE through c. 1200 CE and is many a time categorised as one of the early universities of India along with other institutions like Vikramashila and Taxila. He was also called shakraditya. According to conventional Tibetian sources, Nalanda housed a big library called Dharmaganja (Piety Mart) that encompassed three multi-storied edifices called Ratnaranjaka (Jewel-adorned), Ratnodadhi (Sea of Jewels) and Ratnasagaral (Ocean of Jewels). It is considered the second oldest of India's universities and was situated in Magadh. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. Nalanda Mahavihara UNESCO reports that excavation has revealed "an extensive mound, 105 metres long by 85 metres, which represents the archaeological remains of a Buddhist monastery . It includesstupas. WebSolution The correct option is A 1 only "Nalanda Mahavihara was founded by Kumargupta I of the Gupta dynasty in 5th century CE. Currently it is known as the Bihar Sharif city (Headquarters of Nalanda District). . The official monastic seals bear as usual the wheel-and-deer insignia and the legend Shri-Nalanda-maha-vihariyarya-bhiksu-sanghasya. Such as Right faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Action. A brief note on Zero Budget Natural Farming, The father of Zero Budget natural farming, pillars of Zero Budget natural farming, The difference between zero budget farming and organic farming and many things. He visited the Nalanda Mahavihara twice in 637 and 642 CE while travelling around India from 630 to 643 CE. A brass monastery was constructed by him inside Nalanda. Nalanda Among them the 12th Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta Baladitya was raised under the guidance of Vasubandhu, a very influential Buddhist monk, scholar, and Mahayanist philosopher from Gandhara. Monoliths of the Mawphlang Sacred Forest, Meghalay 108 Shiva Mandir, Kalna, West Bengal, India, The Kalna Rajbari Temple Complex, West Bengal, India. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted period of 800 years. Nalanda was the oldest Buddhist learning center. The lavamsa[7] written during the European Middle Ages by a monk called Dhamma-kitti, says that king Mahsena (277-304 AD) had the Mahavihara destroyed by devotees of the Abhayagiri vihara. Mahavihara WebNalanda, ancient university and Buddhist monastic centre southwest of Bihar Sharif in central Bihar state, northeastern India. It was the most prosperous and famous university of the ancient world. Nalanda Nalandas traditional history dates to the time of the Buddha (6th5th centuries bce) and Mahavira, the founder of the Jaina religion. A thirty-meter wide road ran in the north-south direction through Nalanda, with the temples arranged on one side (west), and the monasteries on the other side (east). [4] It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. He was against rituals and animal sacrifices. From the back, the Sariputta stupa looks like a stepped pyramid. Summarize this article for a 10 years old, Nalanda (Nland, pronounced[nalnda]) was a renowned mahavihara (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), eastern India. The development of the property gives credence to the development of Buddhism into a religion and the establishment of monastic and educational traditions. Vihara refers to a seat of religious and academic learning; adding the prefix maha- signifies a collection of such seats. It is considered the second oldest of India's universities and was situated in Magadh. The Pala ruler Dharmapala was its founder. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India Surya Kumar Yadav is related to which of the following sports? Copyright CulturalIndia.netAll Rights Reserved. They also note that occasions such as the installation of a new image, selection of a new teacher, victory even in a religious discussion and so on could lead to happy moments in the campus life followed by many rituals. This reveals a deeply devotional, celebratory atmosphere, which is interesting to this writer given the way modern American Buddhism has been mostly stripped of its devotional aspects. It was the most prosperous and famous university of the ancient world. [2] Some texts also spell the name Jaggadala. , Image Credit: https://www.groupouting.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Nalanda-5.jpg. Nava Nalanda Mahavihara Accounts given by him predominantly focus on the practice of the religion in India and a thorough elucidation of the traditions, rules, customs and norms followed by monks of Nalanda. One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia. The traditional Theravadin account provided by the Mahavamsa stands in contrast to the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian (Ch. Little is known about Jagaddala compared with the other mahaviharas of the era. Jaggadala was founded toward the end of the Pla dynasty, most likely by Rmapla (c. Currently it is known as the Bihar Sharif city (Headquarters of Nalanda District). It included language and grammar, arts, medicine, logic and philosophy, as well as exhaustive study of the works of the eighteen sects of Mahayana Buddhism, Mahasastra, Atharvaveda, Vinaya texts and Sutras, and even metal-casting and astronomy. Note: This article hasbeen publishedon the Iskcon News site, the Graham Hancock website, eSamskriti , Satyameva Jayate andthe Viewz Nalanda was established as a Mahavihara i.e. Kumargupta founded Nalanda university in the 5th century A.D. World's largest museum of Harappan culture isbeing setup in -. Chandragupta I was the first great ruler of the Gupta Empire, who assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. When Xuanzang returned to China, he carried 657 Buddhist texts, 74 of which he subsequently translated. [9] Before it was destroyed and burned much of its facilities at the beginning of the twelfth century by the Islamic invader Bakhtiyar Khilji, Nalanda held over 9 million texts. The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. But, then, the stories of goddess Durga and Kali are intertwined in Hinduism, and the stories of one could have been easily ascribed to the other. It was an ancient Mahavihara, a Buddhist monastery. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university in the Indian Subcontinent. At its peak, Nalanda attracted students from all over Asia: Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. Also as one of the world's oldest universities, it received patronage from various local kings and foreign rulers for over 800 years. Learn more topics related to General Awareness, Access more than 469+ courses for UPSC - optional, Access free live classes and tests on the app, millennium BCE is linked to the nearby city of Rajagriha the capital of Magadha and the trade routes of ancient India. The RRB (Railway Recruitment Board) had conducted the RRB Group D exam to recruit various posts of Track Maintainer, and Helper/Assistant in various technical departments like Electrical, Mechanical, S&T, etc. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture, https://www.culturalindia.net/monuments/nalanda.html. The clay seals of Vainya Gupta, Budha Gupta, and Kumara Gupta, found at Nalanda, are collectively the best testimony regarding its prominence from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD. whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumargupta I or Kumar Gupta II and 1197 A.D, supported by patronage from the Hindugupta rulers as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the pala empire. Numerous seals and sculptures have been found at Nalanda. It is considered the second oldest of India's universities and was situated in Magadh. Expansions and development including building new temples and monasteries took place during the reign of his successors namely Buddhagupta, Baladitya, Tathagatagupta and Vajra. English Releases Rana Kapoor and the late Ashok Kapoor founded Yes Bank Ltd. on November 21, 2003. So one could not cause injury to animals, birds, insects, or plants. Guptas were the predecessors of the Bhaktiyar Khalji. " It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Why was it built: As Mahavihara (large Buddhist monastery) Best Time to Visit: October to March. Suggest Corrections 0 Similar questions Chandragupta I was the first great ruler of the Gupta Empire, who assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. Nalanda was located in Bihar, which derives its name from vihara. Scholars from Nalanda were world renowned for their mastery in debate, and many went on to perform important tasks in translation as well. Don't you find Indra and Zeus alike? Ancient University it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.[2]. The Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya (Pali for "Great Monastery") was an important monastery for Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0100_0199/nalanda/nalanda1.jpg, https://www.groupouting.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Nalanda-4.jpg. Several antiques including inscriptions, coins, sculptures and seals were excavated from the site which now finds place in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum. Over some 750 years, its faculty included some of Out of every 10 applicants, only 2 got admission. Much of what we know about Nalanda is from the detailed writings of two Chinese monks, Xuanzang and Yijing (or I-tsing), who traveled to Nalanda during the 7th century CE and stayed for 2 and 14 years, respectively. Nalanda was the place of birth and parinirvana of Sariputta. The brick walls of the hostels are 6 feet wide, to offer protection from the heat! WebNalanda Mahavihara was founded in the 5th century CE by Kumargupta I of the Gupta Dynasty. Wisdom Publications. The Gupta Empire was founded by Sri Gupta. Krishna worship and Ratha Yatra Festival in Ancient Egypt? WebNava Nalanda Mahavihara ( NNM) is an institute deemed to be university located in Nalanda, Bihar, India. There were two types of education in ancient India, the gurukulas, or Vedic schools, and the viharas, or Buddhist monasteries. Such was the brutality of this onslaught that Buddhism was entirely eliminated from the country of its birth. He was also called shakraditya. Why was it built: As Mahavihara (large Buddhist monastery) Best Time to Visit: October to March. Image Credit: http://patnabeats.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Nalanda-Mahavira-3.jpg, Nalanda was originally a thriving village close to Magadhas capital Rajagriha (presently Rajgir) located beside a prime trade route. While one of the monarchs constructed a high wall surrounding the structures of the site, another emperor Purnavarman built a six stage pavilion for installing a 24 m high copper idol of Lord Buddha. Which Veda is a collection of sacrificial formulas? Xuanzang who was lovingly called Mokshadeva in Nalanda took up courses on Buddhist studies, Sanskrit, logic and grammar and at a later stage delivered lectures there. PMVVY Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana, EPFO Employees Provident Fund Organisation. The patronage of the Gupta Empire saw this Mahavihara prosper during 5th and 6th century as also during the reign of emperor Harsha of Kannauj. An impressive throne with many images of the Buddha carved on it. The shrine was originally built by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, and was successively enlarged. Hiuen Tsang wrote of 300 feet high viharas, richly adorned towers, and observatories "whose upper rooms towered above the clouds". (residential and educational buildings), and important artworks in stucco, stone, and metal. Mahavihara

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