how did vertebrates evolved from invertebrates

Vertebrate Land Invasions-Past, Present, and Future: An Introduction to Department of Neuroscience, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy, This article was submitted to Stem Cell Research, a section of the journal Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 1d). Astrocytes send processes that contact blood vessels with typical mammalian-like vascular endfeet, and they wrap neuronal synapses, suggesting a role in synapse formation and functions (Achcarro N. 1915). (G,G) Higher magnification of 1 and 2 in G, respectively. ILAs were considered a primate-specific cell type for long time (Jorge A. Colombo and Reisin 2004). Moreover, the methylation levels of early embryos at different stages were also similar to those of the gametes in sea anemone (Fig. W (F) Arrowheads point to astrocytes soma in the chameleon brain. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata, the clade Craniata, and the phylum Chordata. Answer (1 of 6): >> Did vertebrates evolve from invertebrates? . Our data show that the methylation levels of non-CpGs are not significant in the oocytes and early embryos from sea anemone, honey bee, sea urchin and sea squirt (Supplementary Fig. X.X., G.L., J.Z. The purpose of this review is to report what we do know about astrocytes and astrocyte-like elements across vertebrates and about primitive astroglia-like structures in invertebrates (see Figure 1 for the species included in this review). It astounds me that there are people who still believe in such fairytales given the overwhelming evidence to the contrary. Lemons Gene ontology (GO) enrichment of genes with differentially methylated promoters was performed. Phys.org is a part of Science X network. DMPs identified in honey bee, sea anemone and sea squirt were very limited. Surani To believe it act. The asymmetric methylomes of sperm and oocytes are then reprogrammed to equivalent states soon after fertilization. S10a). Oberheim N. A., Goldman S. A., Nedergaard M. (2012). The knowledge of vertebrates as revealed by fossils has grown rapidly during the past few decades, but there is much still to be discovered. Our study reveals that DNA methylation reprogramming has evolved dramatically during animal evolution, especially after the evolutionary transitions from invertebrates to vertebrates, and then to mammals. In fact, in a study of 46 mammalian species (22 of which were primates), some mammals were found to have a rudimentary form of ILAs (rudimentary ILAs, observed in marsupials, Xenarthra, rodents, Scandentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora, and Artiodactyla), with processes not crossing the layer III boundary, while others displayed the typical form of ILAs (typical ILAs, observed in primates, Hyracoidea, and Proboscidea), with proper inter-layer processes (Falcone et al., 2019). , Falckenhayn C and Gutekunst Jet al. Falcone C., Erin L., McBride W., Hopkins D., Hof P. R., Manger P. R., et al. II uccelli, [Morphology and histochemistry of the glia of neural axis in vertebrates]. Wang They found that such spinal cord RG cells express mammalian astrocyte marker genes such as Glt-1, Glast, and Gat-3 across development. Chen JR In the spinal cord, RG surround the ependymal layer, while in white matter, astrocyte morphology is more developed in the ventral vs the dorsal portions. S9hj), showing that DNA methylation anti-correlates with the expression of HOX genes in human 6-week embryos and placenta. In the caimans cerebellum, GFAP+ RG fibers are numerous and so are the astrocytes between them, similar to the Bergmann glia of mammals and birds (Klmn and Pritz 2001). Vertebrates have multiple sets of HOX genes, which enable vertebrates to have more complicated body plans [22], but this larger number of HOX genes also brings challenges regarding the genome being able to express each individual HOX gene in the right place and at the right time. 3a). 8600 Rockville Pike Arrows point to cell somata, arrowheads point to varicosities on VP-A processes. (2021). , Nelson CE and Morgan BAet al. Explanation: Starting from radial organism , organism starts to possess bilateral symmetry (symmetrical to the right and left). The first reptiles evolved from an amphibian ancestor at least 300 million years ago. GFAP+ stellate astrocytes are present in both the septum, the preoptic hypothalamus, and, in small groups, in the tegmentum. 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Moreover, a transcriptomic analysis revealed region-specific and cortical layer-specific gene expression in astrocytes too, similar to what happens for neurons (Bayraktar et al., 2020). We hypothesize that methylation reprogramming regulates vertebrate HOX clusters, which helps vertebrate genomes to achieve the goal of spatiotemporal expression of multiple HOX clusters. Taken together, parental methylomes are almost identical and remain stable during embryogenesis in pre-bilaterians such as cnidarians and in protostomes such as insects. Our data further show that the mosaic pattern persists throughout the gametes and early embryos in sea anemone, honey bee, sea urchin and sea squirt (Fig. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Reconstructing vertebrates rise from the water to land S. Ohno. In contrast, GFAP expression is present everywhere in caiman (and astrocytes are intermingled with RG fibers and never predominant), while that expression is absent in turtle and predominant in birds. Vertebrates and invertebrates evolved from a common ancestor that was speculated to have lived around 600 million years ago. ILAs have their cell body in cortical layer I, very close to the pia, and have long, GFAP+ interlaminar processes that travel perpendicular to the pia toward deeper cortical layers, reaching layer IV in humans (Figure 4C). The authors also screened several other species of primates from Old and New World monkeys, as well as prosimians, but they did not detect VP-As in any of these non-hominoid species. Astrocytes have been also found in the white matter of this lizard species and in grey matter in small numbers (Monzon-Mayor et al., 1990). In the telencephalon, glial processes terminate on vessels with wide, round endfeet, similar to mammalian astrocytes. R , Bush EC and Remnant EJet al. 4e). , Evolution of astrocytes in the vertebrate CNS, Neuron-glia interrelations during phylogeny: I. Phylogeny and ontogeny of glial cells. Such genes usually have unmethylated promoters in gametes and embryos, and show high expression in human 6-week embryos (Supplementary Fig. Our analysis showed that a small proportion of non-HOX homeobox genes are hypermethylated or methylated to a medium level in gametes and early embryos in invertebrates, and that no dynamics are observed (Supplementary Fig. Moreover, gecko adult astrocytes retain an immature phenotype, resembling rat embryonic astrocytes, because of sustained Vav1 expression (Du et al., 2021). performed the bioinformatics analyses; X.X., G.L., X.H., X.L., C.W., M.Q.M. The Life of the First Vertebrates - JSTOR To deal with this issue, it seems that DNA methylation reprogramming in HOX gene clusters was added into vertebrate genomes to enable more elaborate spatiotemporal control of HOX gene expression. The different astrocyte responses in different species may have an endogenous origin. The vertebrate circulatory system The basic vertebrate pattern The plan. (b) Global average methylation levels across different animals. For example, Drosophila astrocyte-like glia express GABA transaminase (Gat-1), the dEAAT1 glutamate transporter, and glutamate synthase 2 (Gs2) (Yang and Jackson 2019). This spurred a team of Tsukuba-centered researchers to unravel this evolution mystery. Lrincz and Klmn reviewed the most relevant findings in Squamata, the largest order of reptiles comprising lizards and snakes (Lrincz and Klmn 2020). , Huang F and Liu Jet al. J Green = GFAP; Blue = DAPI. FOIA Astrocytes as we know them today have been mostly investigated in mammals, and more specifically in the mouse, in humans, and in non-human primates. and Walter J. Bainbridge Most of the DVR is deficient in GFAP+ cells or fibers. In mammals, the promoter regions of most genes had unmethylated status in sperm, oocytes and embryos, while many genes showed significant reprogramming in genic regions (Supplementary Fig. Scientists have long puzzled over the gap in the fossil record that would explain the evolution from invertebrates to vertebrates. Understanding how astrocytes evolved across vertebrates, and more specifically in mammals, is important information not only for its own sake but also because it can offer insights into primate-specific astrocytic pathologies, which are currently difficult to model in rodents. In contrast, the multiple HOX clusters show dramatic dynamics of DNA methylation during vertebrate embryogenesis. The Basics of Vertebrate Evolution - ThoughtCo How did the vertebrates evolve from invertebrates? The word "invertebrate" comes from the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. However, the appearance of astrocytes in evolution has been proposed to be an apomorphic trait, especially when comparing caimans and turtles to phylogenetically related birds (i.e., chicken). Scale bar: 20m. This work is also among the few to show similarities in electrophysiological kinetics between zebrafish astrocyte-like cells and mouse astrocytes. The detailed methods and materials are available as Supplementary Data at NSR online. Notably, promoter regions of non-HOX homeobox genes were significantly hypermethylated in mammalian placenta compared with E7.5 or 6-week embryos (Supplementary Fig. 160 pp, Origin and evolution of the adaptive immune system: genetic events and selective pressures, DNA methylation landscapes: provocative insights from epigenomics, DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory, Functions of DNA methylation: islands, start sites, gene bodies and beyond, Function and information content of DNA methylation, Human DNA methylomes at base resolution show widespread epigenomic differences, Conservation and divergence of methylation patterning in plants and animals, Epigenetic memory at embryonic enhancers identified in DNA methylation maps from adult mouse tissues, Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of eukaryotic DNA methylation, Beyond DNA: programming and inheritance of parental methylomes, Contribution of intragenic DNA methylation in mouse gametic DNA methylomes to establish oocyte-specific heritable marks, Sperm, but not oocyte, DNA methylome is inherited by zebrafish early embryos, Reprogramming the maternal zebrafish genome after fertilization to match the paternal methylation pattern, The DNA methylation landscape of human early embryos, DNA methylation dynamics of the human preimplantation embryo, Programming and inheritance of parental DNA methylomes in mammals, Targets and dynamics of promoter DNA methylation during early mouse development, A unique regulatory phase of DNA methylation in the early mammalian embryo, Origins of bilateral symmetry: Hox and dpp expression in a sea anemone, Archetypal organization of the amphioxus Hox gene cluster, Hox genes and the evolution of vertebrate axial morphology, Evolution of Hox gene clusters in deuterostomes, Endless forms: the evolution of gene regulation and morphological diversity, Duplications of hox gene clusters and the emergence of vertebrates, DNA methylation reprogramming of functional elements during mammalian embryonic development, DNA methylation in basal metazoans: insights from ctenophores, Genome-wide and caste-specific DNA methylomes of the ants Camponotus floridanus and Harpegnathos saltator, Function and evolution of DNA methylation in Nasonia vitripennis, Single base-resolution methylome of the silkworm reveals a sparse epigenomic map, Genome-wide DNA methylomes from discrete developmental stages reveal the predominance of non-CpG methylation in Tribolium castaneum, The methylome of the marbled crayfish links gene body methylation to stable expression of poorly accessible genes, Genome-wide and single-base resolution DNA methylomes of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas provide insight into the evolution of invertebrate CpG methylation, Evolutionary consequences of DNA methylation on the GC content in vertebrate genomes, The dynamic DNA methylation cycle from egg to sperm in the honey bee Apis mellifera, Genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation dynamics during early human development, DNA methylation establishment during oocyte growth: mechanisms and significance, Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development, Epigenomic analysis of multilineage differentiation of human embryonic stem cells, Stages of embryonic development of the zebrafish, Human body epigenome maps reveal noncanonical DNA methylation variation, Molecular evolution of the homeodomain family of transcription factors, The evolution of signalling pathways in animal development, Genome imprinting and development in the mouse, Genomic imprinting: parental influence on the genome, Mouse mutants lacking the type 2 IGF receptor (IGF2R) are rescued from perinatal lethality in Igf2 and Igf1r null backgrounds, New genes as drivers of phenotypic evolution, Database Resources of the BIG Data Center in 2018, Single-cell RNA-Seq profiling of human preimplantation embryos and embryonic stem cells. The ancestral vertebrate (protovertebrate) has been sought for more than 100 years, and the likelihood of finding it today is not much greater than in the past. Li Potok . S9ac, eg). However, more studies are needed to identify the specific functions of VP-As. The first amphibians evolved from a lobe-finned fish ancestor about 365 million years ago. Scale bar: 20m. Notochord evolution has often been discussed within the context of scenarios for the invertebrate-to-vertebrate transition (which are traditionally named after a key invertebrate group perceived as ancestral to vertebrates). King et al. Evolution is impossible. N , Arndt PF and Holm Let al. showed that zebrafish spinal cord RG differentiate into cells that share several similarities with mammalian astrocytes. To go farther down that road, a few new steps must be taken. (2021). Astrocytes, a specific type of glial cell in the CNS, play pivotal roles in regulating all of these features and thus are crucial for the development and evolution of the CNS. The term astrocytes was used for the first time by Lenhossek in 1895 (Lenhossk M. 1895) with the intent to replace the term glia (from the Greek for glue), which did not represent the many functions of these cells. The proof of transformation was confirmed by whole-embryo single-cell RNA-sequencing assays. Tomizawa (A) Adapted from Lrincz and Klmn, 2020, from Figure 4H. With elegant genetic manipulations and in vivo imaging, they were able to document the transformation from RG to astrocyte-like cellsa transformation that revealed dynamic cellular process elaboration and arborization early in development (between two and 4days post fertilization). Dashed yellow line indicates border between layer 1 and 2. S5, red boxes). This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFC1003303), the Strategic Priority Research Program of the CAS (XDB13040200), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (91519306, 31425015), the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the CAS and the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, CAS (QYZDY-SSW-SMC016). Vertebrate Evolution ( Read ) | Biology | CK-12 Foundation . One tentative classification based in cladistics separates the vertebrates into two superclasses (Agnatha and Gnathostomata). Preferential uptake of rubidium from extracellular space by glial cells compared to neurons in leech ganglia, Molecular dissection of reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation, Astrocyte barriers to neurotoxic inflammation. In grey matter, cells similar to mammalian protoplasmic astrocytes are visible, with variable number and orientation of the processes depending on the region (few/short dorsally and numerous/more complex ventrally). Further gene expression analysis demonstrated that most HOX genes are expressed in human 6-week embryos, but not in placenta (Fig. Astrocytes in the corn snake brain; arrows point to astrocytes, arrowheads point to RG processes. Credit: University of Tsukuba. Evolution of the Vertebrates - Part II, Invasion of the Land problems in adapting to life on the land (support, drying out, reproduction) rst land plants (ferns) and land animals (amphibians) need water for reproduction age of fossil evidence for . Previous studies have shown the global methylation differences between zebrafish gametes and the inheritance of the sperm methylome by early zebrafish embryos [14,15] (Fig. What did vertebrates evolve from? Zebrafish HOX genes reprogram to unmethylated states by the MBT stage (Fig. Vertebrate - Evolution and classification | Britannica Ryoko Horie et al, Shared evolutionary origin of vertebrate neural crest and cranial placodes, Nature (2018). and W.Z. , Chiba H and Hiura Het al. (c) Genomic snapshots (IGV) displaying mosaic methylation pattern in invertebrates. Nearly 100 years after, Colombo thoroughly described these unique cells in the brains of several species of primates (i.e., Sapajus apella and Saimiri sciureus, among others), including human (J. However, ILAs have specific features in primates that are not present in non-primates: higher density, higher morphological complexity (i.e., ILA processes are more numerous, longer, and more branched), a specific developmental trajectory, and specific molecular markers (i.e., S100b, HOPX, and CRYAB, together with the astrocyte markers Vimentin, Glast, and Aqp4) (Falcone et al., 2019; 2020). , Mukamel EA and Nery JRet al. , Chan MM and Humm KCet al. (GG) Adapted from Falcone et al., 2021, Figure 2D. Brancaccio M., Patton A. P., Chesham J. E., Maywood E. S., Hastings M. H. (2017). This attenuation may be due to different secreted factors, by comparing RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data from adult gecko, adult rat, and embryonic rat (E18) astrocytes in wound healing models. Evolution of the notochord | EvoDevo | Full Text - BioMed Central A jaw-dropping conundrum: Why do mammals have a stiff lower jaw? At present, many of these old ideas have lost their appeal due to progress in molecular phylogeny and developmental genetics. Recently, a study used sequencing of Methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD)-biotin-based selection of CpG-methylated DNA, which can only cover a limited proportion of CpGs, to analyze the sperm, oocytes and adult drones of honey bee [37]. VP-As are another fascinating type of GFAP+ astrocyte present in deeper layers of the cerebral cortex and in white matter; they are characterized by bushy short processes and one to five long processesspanning all directionswith prominent, evenly spaced varicosities (Figures 4DH). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (, Visualization of charge carrier in photocatalysts, Uncover rock-climbing fish's secret of balancing tight adhesion and fast sliding for bioinspired robots, Commentary on Oldhamite: a new link in upper mantle for C-O-S-Ca cycles and an indicator for planetary habitability, High-Resolution Model Experiments Unveil the Crucial Role of Small-Scale Air-Sea Interactions in Large-Scale Oceanic Water Mass Formation, Non-planar dielectrics derived thermal and electrostatic field inhomogeneity for boosted weather-adaptive energy harvesting, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Metabolism, development, adaptive immune, reproduction, Human 6-week and placenta RNA, methylomes, Copyright 2023 China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. (Science Press). Our data showed that both promoter and genic regions of almost all these genes were maintained in an unmethylated state, and showed no dynamics in invertebrates (Supplementary Fig. In general, in the reptile forebrain, the predominant cells are unipolar ependymal cells and bipolar RG-like cells with processes directed to the parenchyma, with sparse astrocytes close to neurons and almost always intermingled within RG fibers (Bairati and Tripoli 1954; King 1966). The puzzle is further compounded by evidence of the presence of rudiments of both cell types in invertebrate chordates (animals without a spinal cord). Interestingly, among primates, the ILAs of the great apes have greater morphological complexity than other primates. A., Fuchs E., Hrtig W., Marotte L. R., Puissant V. (2000). Flajnik In addition, no significant differences in methylation level were found for various genomic elements during sea anemone embryogenesis (Supplementary Fig. Our data showed that HOX gene clusters in mammalian sperm and oocytes are not uniformly methylated or unmethylated (Fig. 2a). . This correlation remains elusive in oocytes of other animals. The nervous system showed its first organization in neuronal ganglia in Cnidaria, then became a proper centralized CNS in Bilateria (e.g., flatworms), subsequently became more complex in protostomes (e.g., insects and crustaceans), and finally showed higher degrees of complexity in vertebrates. Therefore, though GFAP expression, when combined with anatomical and structural observations, is still valid for identifying astrocyte-like cells across many different species, it may be insufficient to comprehensively define the features and heterogeneity of the whole astrocyte population. Astrocyte layers in the mammalian cerebral cortex revealed by a single-cell. First, we explored the global methylation levels of sperm or somatic tissues in animals, including our data and the previously published data (Fig. The global methylation levels of our data are similar to those studies (Supplementary Table S1) [9,11]. To investigate the evolution of inheritance and reprogramming of parental methylation patterns, we performed whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) to get DNA methylomes of sperm, oocytes and early embryos from sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis), honey bee (Apis mellifera), sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) and sea squirt (Ciona savignyi) (Supplementary Table S1). Wang In the monitor lizard (Varanus exanthematicus), the telencephalon shows strong GFAP expression, with a trilaminar structure like in the gecko, while the DVR shows little to no GFAP immunoreactivity (Lrincz and Klmn 2020). and J.L. The authors showed clear differences between neuronal and glial cells, with the latter being smaller size and having denser cytoplasmic and nucleoplasmic matrices. Functional association analysis suggests that DNA methylation reprogramming is associated with development, reproduction and adaptive immunity for vertebrates, but not for invertebrates. and Sommer RJ. They also evolved a cranium, or bony skull, to enclose and . The first amphibians evolved from a lobe-finned fish ancestor about 365 million years ago. However, to the best of my knowledge, no studies are available to show the distribution of astrocyte populations different from the GFAP+ population in birds. (1997). Importantly, our data showed that HOX genes, including both genic regions and promoters, are generally unmethylated and show no dynamics in gametes and early embryos in invertebrates, including sea anemone (Fig. Cluster under bars represents evolutionary tree of animals which is derived from the Time Tree (http://timetree.org/). In fact, different studies have shown that different genes are involved in glial differentiation in invertebrates vs vertebrates (e.g., gcm drives glial differentiation in Drosophila, while the mammalian homologue Gcm has not retained that function) and that there are highly conserved pathways between the two groups (e.g., BMP FGF) (Yang and Jackson 2019). W.C., Z.W. The PCC of the oocytes was also the lowest among different cell types and tissues in human (Supplementary Fig. (C) Example of ILA in the rhesus macaque dorsofrontal cortex. Soshnikova A., Yez A., Puissant V., Lipina S., Yanez A. While previous studies proposed that RG would functionally substitute for astrocytes in the adult zebrafish nervous system, Chen et al. , Fan Y and Li Get al. These astrocytes are twice as large as mouse/rat cortical and hippocampal astrocytes, but smaller than those in humans. Very few studies on glial cell identity and functions have been conducted in amphibians. 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